Accepting the view of Saussure (1857-1913) as to the two axes of succession and association, Roman Jacobson (1982-1896), the Russian linguist and theorist divides the LANGUAGE into two metaphorical and FIGURATIVE POLEs, believing that the metaphorical POLE is for poetry and based on the resemblance in the succession axis, the FIGURATIVE POLE is for prose and takes shape based on the proximity relation in the association axis. Based on this view, in “ Beihaghi History” , in which the dominance of LANGUAGE is with the FIGURATIVE POLE, among the different LANGUAGE functions, allusion is of particular importance as a stylistic property belonging to the FIGURATIVE POLE of the LANGUAGE. By interfering in the syntactic structure of the sentences, which is often in the association axis of the LANGUAGE, Beihaghi has made the greatest use of allusion for visualization and objectification of mental concepts. The allusions of Beihaghi‘ s History can divided into two linguistic and literary groups, most of which are objective in their original sense, and in the sense of what they mean, they are capable of realization in the external reality, and this has consistency with what Jacobson says as that the FIGURATIVE POLE of LANGUAGE is the prominent feature of the prose, especially the realistic literature.

This article surveys FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE from the point of view of rhetorical scholars and experts of conceptual issues. Following the explanation of Jacobson's Poetry theory and the definition he offers on the FIGURATIVE POLE of LANGUAGE, it attempts to convey the process of this phenomenon in the poetry of poets creating eulogies. In order to achieve this purpose, Manoochehri's poetry, which is the best representative of this poetry in the first half of fifth century enjoying rich poetic images, the function of combination and selection are surveyed in his poetic verses. Following this, this article shows how the two mentioned axis which are related to the FIGURATIVE POLE of LANGUAGE, make the referent closer to the accurate case in the real world from a linguistic system to its concrete case in the outer world regardless of LANGUAGE. All these processes creates a poetry that despite utilizing linguistic ornaments, figures of speech, and artistic aesthetic is closer to the referee's LANGUAGE and constantly conceptual from a linguistic point of view.

Arabic and Persian rhetoric is largely under the influence of Islamic ideology and, in fact, the ideological controversies in the field of Islamic theology have shaped the core of many rhetorical studies. Most of the rhetoric historians have addressed the binary opposition of literal/FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE, which was common between Muslim rhetoricians, but they never mentioned that there were some theorists who didn't believe in FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE at all. The "denial of FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE" is usually attributed to early figures such as Abu-Ishagh Esfarayeni, but the most zealous advocate of this idea is Ibn Taymiyyah Damishqi. This article introduces the problem of FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE and the ideological beliefs which have given rise to the rhetorical theories, and then goes on to show the theological context of the controversy over the denial of FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. Finally, the article addresses Ibn Taymiyyah's theory about FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE and its influences on the history of Islamic rhetoric.

The present work is on the functional aspect of the FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE in the autonomous Persian LANGUAGE and the possibility of deploying the same process in a literary context. To achieve the projected goal first a literature review of the FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE as reflected in tradition is conducted, then the prospect of the FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE in literary studies is investigated. The varieties of the FIGURATIVE speech are semantically examined in the tradition of this literary device. Next comes a review of this phase of the project. At the end a new description of the FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE in literary context is suggested to determine the configuration of the FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE from a semantic perspective.

Two important factors are said to contribute to SL learners understanding of English poetry: mastery of lexical items and the syntactic rules governing them, and a fair knowledge of the devices used in versification. Still, a third factor may be said to be knowledge of FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE which is characteristic of poetry in general. This study is aimed at measuring the extent of the relationship between conceptual knowledge of FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE, reading comprehension skill and the appreciation of poetry. Some implications of the findings are discussed in terms of SLA and TEFL.

Hindi style whether in terms of form or content has a more fascinating characteristics compared with other Persian poetry styles. Regarding form, there are certain linguistic factors which renders the LANGUAGE quite complicated for instance the very existence of peculiar FIGURATIVE devices creates ambiguity in the poetic LANGUAGE of Hindi style. These structures are words which lie next to each other and cause defamiliarization and complexity of LANGUAGE. Scholars and researches recognize the existence of these peculiar structures as the integral and unique features of the Hindi style and believe that making of such structures is the outcome of the vivid imagination and creativity on the part of poets of Hindi style. In this article specific FIGURATIVE structures employed by Khaghani and Bidel Dehlavi, the two giants of Hindi style have been investigated in terms of LANGUAGE and the substructure of such compounds with their vast structural dimensions have been analyzed.

In new approaches to foreign LANGUAGE learning, communicative competence is a major goal. The literature review shows that foreign LANGUAGE learners find it a formidable task to interpret FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. The linguistic theories derived from the realm of literature are deficient in applied instructional solutions to these problems. Thus the current research was an attempt to use the interventionist model of dynamic assessment to expand the competence of learners to interpret figures of speech. Dynamic assessment enjoys rich theoretical underpinnings in psychology and linguistics. To this aim 10 student majoring in English literature participated in a quasi experimental pre-test, post-test study. The regulatory scale of Aljaafreh and Lantolf (1994) was adopted for intervention phase. Then, paired-samples t-test was used to investigate the effect of this intervention on interpretation of FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE in writings of Edgar Allen Poe. The findings showed that the intervention promoted the competence of LANGUAGE learners significantly. These findings have implications for teachers of English literature, researchers in applied linguistics, LANGUAGE learners and syllabus designers.

This article is interested in the problems of the translation of the FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE; we develop and explain these problems through examples drawn from Persians literature books translated into French. Generally, the goal of translation of the literary texts goes beyond the simple transfer of the meaning. It is necessary to also transmit the style of the writer and to reflect on words, phrases, metaphors and irony expressed in the text. Thus it is impossible to translate Djamalzadeh or DowlatAbadi without considering proverbs, images or irony which determine also their style.

There are three primary models to deal with literal/non-literal LANGUAGE processing. The first is the indirect access model proposed by Grice (1975) and Searle (1979). As indicated by this model, sentences are first processed literally when the literal meaning was not the adequate interpretation; at that point the look for the metaphorical interpretation begins. The second is the direct access model proposed by Glucksberg et al. (1982). As indicated by this model, metaphors are processed as easily as literal sentences. Their findings demonstrated that there is no contrast between the processing of literal sentences and metaphor. The third is a continual processing model, for example, “ The contemporary theory of metaphor” , Lakoff (1993); “ the Gradient Salience Model” , Giora (1997, 2003) and “ the Career of Metaphor Model” , Bowdel and Gentner (2005). In these models, literal sentences and conventional metaphors are processed in the same way. Lakoff (1993) believes that the meaning of literal sentences and conventional metaphors are accessed at the same time since they both are retrieved from memory. But Giora (1997, 2003) believes that the reason for this simultaneous processing is that conventional metaphors are as salient as literal sentences. Novel metaphors are processed more slowly than literal sentences and conventional metaphors. Their processing includes more cognitive efforts. Lakoff (1993) asserts that this slower processing of novel metaphors is due to the comparison and the conceptual mapping of the source domain on the target domain (online processing compared with retrieving from memory). Bowdel and Gentner (2005) believe that novel metaphors are processed as “ analogy” , but conventional metaphors are processed as “ categorization” . However, Giora (1997, 2003) considers the non-saliency as the main cause of this slower processing. Behavioral researches have mainly focused on the reaction time of subjects during the processing of metaphors. The improvement of brain imaging technologies in recent decades has motivated researchers to use techniques such as ERP, PET, and fMRI, to study the processing of non-literal LANGUAGE including metaphors. Kutas, Federmeyer, Coulson, King, and Munte (2000) state that techniques with high temporal resolution, for example, ERPs and eye tracking, can help revealing how LANGUAGE processing unfolds over time. They can be used to track the availability of different sorts of linguistic information and the temporal course of their interactions. Since 1980, many researches, including Pynte, Besson, Robichon and Poli (1996), Tarrter, Gomes, Dubrovsky, Molholm, and Stewart (2002), Coulson, and van Petten (2002), Iakimova, Passerieux, Laurent and Hardy-Bayle (2005), Arzoan, Goldstein, and Faust (2007), Lai, Menn, and Curran (2009), Lai and Curran (2013) have used ERP and N400 to study metaphor processing. This research, using Event-Related Potential technique, studies the processing of literal and metaphorical sentences in Farsi and the role of conceptual mapping in this process. We anticipate literal sentences and conventional metaphors to be processed at a similar speed, but conventional metaphors are processed quicker than novel metaphors. In other words, more cognitive effort happen during the processing of novel metaphors. We also expect that conceptual mapping to occur during the conventional and novel metaphors in different ways. Four hundred sentences (literal, conventional metaphor, novel metaphor and anomalous) were made, then these sentences were designed by Psycopy software to be displayed on the computer screen. The brain electrical signals of 22 participants, were recorded during the reading task by a 64 channels EEG set made by Ant company and ASA lab software. The sample rate was 512 Hz, and the electrodes were arranged based on the 10-20 system. The signals were recorded from 32 electrodes. Using EEGLAB and ERPLAB, the mean amplitude of N400 in 7 areas including midline channels (Fpz, Fz, Cz, Pz, Oz), left medial channels (FC1, CP1, C3), right medial channels (CP2, C4, FC2), left lateral channels (CP5, F3, P3, FC5), right lateral channels (CP6, P4, F4, FC6), left peripheral channels (Fp1, F7, T7, O1) and right peripheral channels (Fp2, F8, T8, O2) were extracted. The data were analyzed by repeated measure (ANOVA) and pair-wise comparison (SPSS). The repeated measure analysis (ANOVA) showed that mean amplitude of four conditions: literal, conventional metaphors, novel metaphors and anomalous sentences in the midline, left and right medial and right peripheral were significantly different. Pair-wise comparison of the amplitude of 400 in 7 areas did not show any significant differences between literal sentences and conventional metaphors, but the pair-wise comparison of the mean amplitude of N400 in left medial channels showed a significant difference between conventional metaphors and novel metaphors processing. The Findings of this research showed that the processing of literal LANGUAGE and conventional metaphors take the same speed and cognitive effort. However, the processing of novel metaphors need more cognitive efforts, which can be considered as an evidence of conceptual mapping. Our findings are consistent with this premise that conceptual mapping in novel metaphors occurs through analogy and in conventional metaphors it happens through categorization.

Introduction: This article examined the discourse goals of people in producing eight different types of FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE and assessed whether these goals vary in different types.Method: Enrolled subjects were 130 associate degree students (65 men and 65 women). An author-composed questionnaire was administered to subjects in which they were asked to read the writers examples first and then to state some examples for that type of FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. Later, they were asked to state their intention of using the special type of FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE instead of literal counterparts.Results: According to Roberts and Kreuz, about 20 discourse goals were devised. results indicated that the most frequent goals for indirect request are: To show positive emotion, showing a clear-sighted characteristics, To be polite. The most frequent goals for Understatement: others, To guide another's actions, To protect the self. The most frequent goals for idiom: To clarify, To be conventional. The most frequent goals for simile: To clarify, To emphasize, To be eloquent. The most frequent goals for Rhetorical question: To emphasize. The most frequent goals for Hyperbole: To emphasize, To clarify. The most frequent goals for irony: To show negative emotion, To be humorous. The most frequent goals for metaphor: others, To guide another's actions, To show negative emotion, To be humorous.Conclusion: This can be concluded that there are similarities and differences in stating FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE discourse goals which are stated in this report.